Join Paul Frame, Ph. This is the first in a series of videos about the Health Physics Historical Collection. Frame started the collection in the s when he discovered X-ray tubes and other items in a cabinet. Museum of Radiation and Radioactivity ORAU is home to the largest collection of historical health physics instruments.
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To read an example rhetorical analysis, go to digital. Newspapers report on local and world events; textbooks give information about biology, history, writing; websites provide information about products jcrew.
Very often this kind of writing calls for research: you need to know your subject in order to report on it. This chapter describes the key elements found in most reports and offers tips for writing one.
Accurate, well-researched information. Reports usually require some research. The kind of research depends on the topic. Library research may be necessary for some topics—for a report on migrant laborers during the Great Depression, for example. Most current topics, however, require internet research. For a report on local farming, for example, you might interview some local farmers.
Various writing strategies. For example, a report on the benefits of exercise might require that you classify types of exercise, analyze the effects of each type, and compare the benefits of each. For a report on the financial crisis for a general audience, for example, you might need to define terms such as mortgage-backed security and predatory lending. Appropriate design.
Numerical data, for instance, can be easier to understand in a table than in a paragraph. A photograph can help readers see a subject, such as an image of someone texting while driving in a report on car accidents.
If you get to choose your topic, consider what interests you and what you wish you knew more about. They may be academic in nature or reflect your personal interests, or both. Even if an assignment seems to offer little flexibility, you will need to decide how to research the topic and how to develop your report to appeal to your audience. And sometimes even narrow topics can be shaped to fit your own interests.
Start with sources that can give you a general sense of the subject, such as a Wikipedia entry or an interview with an expert.
Your goal at this point is to find topics to report on and then to focus on one that you will be able to cover. Come up with a tentative thesis. Once you narrow your topic, write out a statement saying what you plan to report on or explain. Think about what kinds of information will be most informative for your audience, and be sure to consult multiple sources and perspectives. Revisit and finalize your thesis in light of your research findings.
Ways of organizing a report [Reports on topics that are unfamiliar to readers] Begin Explain by with an anecdote, quote, or other means of interesting comparing, Provide background, and state your thesis.
Describe classifying, your topic, analyzing defining causes or any key effects, terms. Conclude by restating your thesis or referring to your beginning. Conclude by topic; provide any necessary background information; state your Narrate the second event or procedure. Narrate the third event or procedure.
Repeat as necessary. Conclude by restating your Repeat as necessary. To read an example report, go to digital. Parents read their children bedtime stories as an evening ritual. Preachers base their sermons on religious stories to teach lessons about moral behavior. Grandparents tell how things used to be, sometimes telling the same stories year after year.
College applicants write about significant moments in their lives. Writing students are often called on to compose narratives to explore their personal experiences. This chapter describes the key elements of personal narratives and provides tips for writing one. Most narratives set up some sort of situation that needs to be resolved.
That need for resolution makes readers want to keep reading. Vivid detail. Details can bring a narrative to life by giving readers vivid mental images of the sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and textures of the world in which your story takes place.
To give readers a picture of your childhood home in the country, you might describe the gnarled apple trees in your backyard and the sound of crickets chirping on a spring night. You may reveal its significance in various ways, but try not to state it too directly, as if it were a kind of moral of the story. Describe the setting. List the places where your story unfolds. Think about the key people. Narratives include people whose actions play an important role in the story.
Try narrating the action using active and specific verbs pondered, shouted, laughed to capture what happened. Consider the significance. You need to make clear why the event you are writing about matters. How did it change or otherwise affect you?
What aspects of your life now can you trace to that event? How might your life have been different if this event had not happened? Ways of organizing a personal narrative. Tell about what happened. Say how Say the conflict something was about the resolved. Fill in details: setting, people, specific actions. Make clear how the situation was resolved. Say something about the significance. To read an example narrative, go to digital. In both cases, you go below the surface to deepen your understanding of how the texts work and what they mean.
This chapter describes the key elements expected in most literary analyses and provides tips for writing one. Your thesis, then, should be arguable. You might argue, for example, that the dialogue between two female characters in a short story reflects current stereotypes about gender roles.
Careful attention to the language of the text. Attention to patterns or themes. Literary analyses are usually built on evidence of meaningful patterns or themes within a text or among several texts. When you write a literary analysis, you show one way the text may be understood, using evidence from the text and, sometimes, relevant contextual evidence to support what you think the text means. MLA style. Start by considering whether your assignment specifies a particular kind of analysis or critical approach.
Look for words that say what to do: analyze, compare, interpret, and so on. Choose a method for analyzing the text. Trace the development and expression of themes, characters, and language through the work. How do they help to create particular meaning, tone, or effects? Explore the way the text affects you as you read through it. Read closely, noticing how the elements of the text shape your responses, both intellectual and emotional. How has the author evoked your response?
Read the work more than once. When you first experience a piece of literature, you usually focus on the story, the plot, the overall meaning. Compose a strong thesis.
Your goal is not to pass judgment but to suggest one way of seeing the text. Do a close reading. Find specific, brief passages that support your interpretation; then analyze those passages in terms of their language, their context, and your reaction to them as a reader. Why does the writer choose this language, these words? What is their effect? If something is repeated, what significance does the pattern have? Support your argument with evidence. The parts of the text you examine in your close reading become the evidence you use to support your interpretation.
Paying attention to matters of style. Literary analyses have certain conventions for using pronouns and verbs. Describe the historical context of the setting in the past tense. Document your sources. To read an example literary analysis, go to digital.
Lovers propose marriage; students propose that colleges provide healthier food options in campus cafeterias. These are all examples of proposals, ideas put forward that offer solutions to some problem. All proposals are arguments: when you propose something, you are trying to persuade others to consider—and hopefully to accept—your solution to the problem. This chapter describes the key elements of a proposal and provides tips for writing one.
Some problems are self-evident and relatively simple, and you would not need much persuasive power to make people act. While some might not see a problem with colleges discarding too much paper, for example, most are likely to agree that recycling is a good thing.
Other issues are more controversial: some people see them as problems while others do not. For example, some believe that motorcycle riders who do not wear helmets risk serious injury and also raise the cost of health care for all of us, but others think that wearing a helmet—or not—should be a personal choice; you would have to present arguments to convince your readers that not wearing a helmet is indeed a problem needing a solution.
A solution to the problem. Once you have defined the problem, you need to describe the solution you are suggesting and to explain it in enough detail for readers to understand what you are proposing.
Sometimes you might suggest several possible solutions, analyze their merits, and then say which one you think will most likely solve the problem.
You need to provide evidence to convince readers that your solution is feasible—and that it will, in fact, solve the problem. A response to questions readers may have. You need to consider any questions readers may have about your proposal—and to show how its advantages outweigh any disadvantages. A proposal for recycling paper, for example, would need to address questions about the costs of recycling bins and separate trash pickups.
A call to action. The goal of a proposal is to persuade readers to accept your proposed solution—and perhaps to take some kind of action. You may want to conclude your proposal by noting the outcomes likely to result from following your recommendations. An appropriate tone. Readers will always react better to a reasonable, respectful presentation than to anger or self-righteousness.
Choose a problem that can be solved. Large, complex problems such as poverty, hunger, or terrorism usually require large, complex solutions. Most of the time, focusing on a smaller problem or a limited aspect of a large problem will yield a more manageable proposal.
Rather than tackling the problem of world poverty, for example, think about the problem faced by people in your community who have lost jobs and need help until they find employment. Most successful proposals share certain features that make them persuasive. Explore several possible solutions to the problem. Decide on the most desirable solution s. One solution may be head and shoulders above others, but be open to rejecting all the possible solutions on your list and starting over if you need to, or to combining two or more potential solutions in order to come up with an acceptable fix.
Think about why your solution is the best one. What has to be done to enact it? What will it cost? What makes you think it can be done? Why will it work better than others? Ways of organizing a proposal. You can organize a proposal in various ways, but you should always begin by establishing that there is a problem.
You may then identify several possible solutions before recommending one of them or a combination of several. Sometimes, however, you might discuss only a single solution. Identify possible Propose a Call for action, solutions and solution and or reiterate consider their pros give reasons your proposed and cons one by one. Anticipate and answer questions. To read an example proposal, go to digital. Such essays are our attempt to think something through by writing about it and to share our thinking with others.
A reflective essay has a dual purpose: to ponder something you find interesting or puzzling and to share your thoughts with an audience. Whatever your subject, your goal is to explore it in a way that will interest others. One way to do that is to start by considering your own experience and then moving on to think about more universal experiences that your readers may share.
For example, you might write about your dog, and in doing so you could raise questions and offer insights about the ways that people and animals interact. Some kind of structure.
A reflective essay can be organized in many ways, but it needs to have a clear structure. Whether you move from detail to detail or focus your reflection on one central question or insight about your subject, all your ideas need to relate, one way or another. The challenge is to keep your readers interested as you explore your topic and to leave them satisfied that the journey was interesting and thought-provoking.
Every now and then someone will cheer her on. Details such as these will help your readers understand and care about your subject. A questioning, speculative tone. So your tone will often be tentative and open, demonstrating a willingness to entertain, try out, accept, and reject various ideas as your essay progresses from beginning to end, maybe even asking questions for which you can provide no direct answers.
Choose a subject you want to explore. Make a list of things that you think about, wonder about, find puzzling or annoying. Explore your subject in detail. Reflections often include descriptive details that provide a base for the speculations to come. Back away. Ask yourself why your subject matters: why is it important or intriguing or otherwise significant? Your goal is to think on screen or paper about your subject, to see where it leads you. Think about how to keep readers with you.
Reflections must be carefully crafted so that readers can follow your train of thought. Ways of organizing a reflective essay. Reflections may be organized in many ways because they mimic the way we think, sometimes associating one idea with another in ways that make sense but do not necessarily follow the kinds of logical progression found in academic arguments or reports. Here are two ways you might organize a reflection. To read an example reflective essay, go to digital.
You may be assigned to create annotated bibliographies to weigh the potential usefulness of sources and to document your search efforts. This chapter describes the key elements of an annotated bibliography and provides tips for writing two kinds of annotations: descriptive and evaluative. Doherty, Thomas. Unwin Hyman, A historical discussion of the identification of teenagers as a targeted film market.
Foster, Harold M. An evaluation of the potential of using teen films such as Sixteen Candles and The Karate Kid to instruct adolescents on the difference between film as communication and film as exploitation. They are often helpful in assessing how useful a source will be for your own writing. Gore, A. An inconvenient truth: The planetary emergency of global warming and what we can do about it. New York, NY: Rodale. It centers on how the atmosphere is very thin and how greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide are making it thicker.
The thicker atmosphere traps more infrared radiation, causing warming of the Earth. He includes several examples of problems caused by global warming. Penguins and polar bears are at risk because the glaciers they call home are quickly melting. Coral reefs are being bleached and destroyed when their inhabitants overheat and leave. For example, many highways in Alaska are only frozen enough to be driven on fewer than 80 days of the year.
In China and elsewhere, recordsetting floods and droughts are taking place. Hurricanes are on the rise. It is useful because it relies on scientific data that can be referred to easily and it provides a solid foundation for me to build on. For example, it explains how carbon dioxide is produced and how it is currently affecting plants and animals.
This evidence could potentially help my research on how humans are biologically affected by global warming.
It will also help me structure my essay, using its general information to lead into the specifics of my topic. For example, I could introduce the issue by explaining the thinness of the atmosphere and the effect of greenhouse gases, then focus on carbon dioxide and its effects on organisms.
A concise description of the work. Relevant commentary. If you write an evaluative bibliography, your comments should be relevant to your purpose and audience. To achieve relevance, consider what questions a potential reader might have about the sources. Consistent presentation. All annotations should be consistent in content, sentence structure, and format. If one annotation is written in complete sentences, they should all be. Decide what sources to include. Though you may be tempted to include every source you find, a better strategy is to include only those sources that you or your readers may find useful in researching your topic.
Is this source relevant to your topic? Is it general or specialized? Are the author and the publisher or sponsor reputable? Does the source present enough evidence? Does it show any particular bias? Does the source reflect current thinking or research?
Decide whether the bibliography should be descriptive or evaluative. Read carefully. To quickly determine whether a source is likely to serve your needs, first check the publisher or sponsor; then read the preface, abstract, or introduction; skim the table of contents or the headings; and read the parts that relate specifically to your topic. Research the writer, if necessary. In any case, information about the writer should take up no more than one sentence in your annotation.
Summarize the work. Sumarize it as objectively as possible: even if you are writing an evaluative annotation, you can evaluate the central point of a work better by stating it clearly first. You may find, however, that some parts are useful while others are not, and your evaluation should reflect that mix. Ways of organizing an annotated bibliography. Depending on their purpose, annotated bibliographies may or may not include an introduction.
State scope. List first List second List third List final alphabeti- alphabeti- alphabeti- alphabeti- cal entry, cal entry, cal entry, cal entry, and anno- and anno- and anno- and anno- tate it. Sometimes an annotated bibliography needs to be organized into several subject areas or genres, periods, or some other category ; if so, the entries are listed alphabetically within each category.
Category 2 alphabetically, and annotate them. List entries Explain category 2. To read an example annotated bibliography, go to digital. You may be required to include an abstract in a report or as a preview of a presentation you plan to give at an academic or professional conference. This chapter provides tips for writing three common kinds: informative, descriptive, and proposal. That one paragraph must mention all the main points or parts of the paper: a description of the study or project, its methods, the results, and the conclusions.
Here is an example of the abstract accompanying a seven-page essay that appeared in in the Journal of Clinical Psychology: The relationship between boredom proneness and health-symptom reporting was examined. The results suggest that boredom proneness may be an important element to consider when assessing symptom reporting. Implications for determining the effects of boredom proneness on psychological- and physicalhealth symptoms, as well as the application in clinical settings, are discussed.
They usually do not summarize the entire paper, give or discuss results, or set out the conclusion or its implications. The findings and their application in clinical settings are discussed. You prepare them to persuade someone to let you write on a topic, pursue a project, conduct an experiment, or present a paper at a scholarly conference; often the abstract is written before the paper itself. Titles and other aspects of the proposal deliberately reflect the theme of the proposed work, and you may use the future tense to describe work not yet completed.
Here is a possible proposal for doing research on boredom and health problems: Undergraduate students will complete the Boredom Proneness Scale and the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. A multiple analysis of covariance will be performed to determine the relationship between boredom-proneness total scores and ratings on the five subscales of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist ObsessiveCompulsive, Somatization, Anxiety, Interpersonal Sensitivity, and Depression. An informative abstract includes enough information to substitute for the report itself; a descriptive abstract offers only enough information to let the audience decide whether to read further; and a proposal abstract gives an overview of the planned work.
Objective description. Abstracts present information on the contents of a report or a proposed study; they do not present arguments about or personal perspectives on those contents. Unless you are writing a proposal abstract, you should write the paper first.
You can then use the finished work as the guide for the abstract, which should follow the same basic structure. Copy and paste key statements. Copy and paste those sentences into a new document to create a rough draft. Pare down the rough draft. Introduce the overall scope of your study, and include any other information that seems crucial to understanding your work. Conform to any length requirements. In general, an informative abstract should be at most 10 percent as long as the original and no longer than the maximum length allowed.
Descriptive abstracts should be shorter still, and proposal abstracts should conform to the requirements of the organization calling for the proposal. Ways of organizing an abstract [An informative abstract] State conclusions of study.
State Summarize nature of method of study. State implications of study. To read an example abstract, go to digital. We read cookbooks to find out how to make brownies; we read textbooks to learn about history, biology, and other academic topics. And as writers, we read our own drafts to make sure they say what we mean.
In other words, we read for many different purposes. Following are some strategies for reading with a critical eye. It always helps to approach new information in the context of what we already know.
List any terms or phrases that come to mind, and group them into categories. Then, or after reading a few paragraphs, list any questions that you expect, want, or hope to be answered as you read, and number them according to their importance to you.
Finally, after you read the whole text, list what you learned from it. Preview the text. Start by skimming to get the basic ideas; read the title and subtitle, any headings, the first and last paragraphs, the first sentences of all the other paragraphs. Study any visuals. Think about your initial response. Read the text to get a sense of it; then jot down brief notes about your initial reaction, and think about why you reacted as you did.
What aspects of the text account for this reaction? Highlight key words and phrases, connect ideas with lines or symbols, and write comments or questions in the margins. What you annotate depends on your purpose. One simple way of annotating is to use a coding system, such as a check mark to indicate passages that confirm what you already thought, an X for ones that contradict your previous thinking, a question mark for ones that are puzzling or confusing, an exclamation point or asterisk for ones that strike you as important, and so on.
You might also circle new words that you need to look up. Play the believing and doubting game. Analyze how the text works. Outline the text paragraph by paragraph. Are there any patterns in the topics the writer addresses?
How has the writer arranged ideas, and how does that arrangement develop the topic? Identify patterns. Look for notable patterns in the text: recurring words and their synonyms, repeated phrases and metaphors, and types of sentences. Does the author rely on any particular writing strategies? Is the evidence offered more opinion than fact? Is there a predominant pattern to how sources are presented?
As quotations? In visual texts, are there any patterns of color, shape, and line? Consider the larger context. What other arguments is he or she responding to? Who is cited? Be persistent with difficult texts. For texts that are especially challenging or uninteresting, first try skimming the headings, the abstract or introduction, and the conclusion to look for something that relates to knowledge you already have.
As a critical reader, you need to look closely at the argument a text makes. Does his or her language include you, or not? Hint: if you see the word we, do you feel included?
So learning to read and interpret visual texts is just as necessary as it is for written texts. Take visuals seriously. When they appear as part of a written text, they may introduce information not discussed elsewhere in the text. It might also help to think about its purpose: Why did the writer include it? What information does it add or emphasize? What argument is it making? How to read charts and graphs. A line graph, for example, usually contains certain elements: title, legend, x-axis, y-axis, and source information.
Figure 1 shows one such graph taken from a sociology textbook. Other types of charts and graphs include some of these same elements. But the specific elements vary according to the different Legend: Explains the symbols used. Here, colors show the different categories. X-axis: Defines the dependent variable something that changes depending on other factors.
Women in the labor force as a percent of the total labor force both men and women age sixteen and over. For example, the chart in Figure 2, from the same textbook, includes elements of both bar and line graphs to depict two trends at once: the red line shows the percentage of women who were in the US labor force from to , and the blue bars show the percentage of US workers who were women during that same period.
Both trends are shown in two-year increments. To make sense of this chart, you need to read the title, the y-axis labels, and the labels and their definitions carefully. Research Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose. We search the web for information about a new computer, ask friends about the best place to get coffee, try on several pairs of jeans before deciding which ones to buy. Will you need to provide background information?
What kinds of evidence will your audience find persuasive? What attitudes do they hold, and how can you best appeal to them? If so, which media will best reach your audience, and how will they affect the kind of information you search for? Is there a due date? How much time will your project take, and how can you best schedule your time in order to complete it?
If the assignment offers only broad guidelines, identify the requirements and range of possibilities, and define your topic within those constraints. As you consider topics, look to narrow your focus to be specific enough to cover in a research paper.
Reference librarians can direct you to the most appropriate reference works, and library catalogs and databases provide sources that have been selected by experts. General encyclopedias and other reference works can provide an overview of your topic, while more specialized encyclopedias cover subjects in greater depth and provide other scholarly references for further research. Some databases include documentation entries in several styles that you can simply copy and paste. Generate a list of questions beginning with What?
Who should determine when and where fracking can be done? Should fracking be expanded? Select one question, and use it to help guide your research.
Drafting a tentative thesis. Here are three tentative thesis statements, each one based on a previous research question about fracking: By injecting sand, water, and chemicals into rock, fracking may pollute drinking water and air.
The federal government should strictly regulate the production of natural gas by fracking. Fracking can greatly increase our supplies of natural gas, but other methods of producing energy should still be pursued.
A tentative thesis will help guide your research, but you should be ready to revise it as you continue to learn about your subject and consider many points of view. Which sources you turn to will depend on your topic. For a report on career opportunities in psychology, you might interview someone working in the field. Primary sources are original works, such as historical documents, literary works, eyewitness accounts, diaries, letters, and lab studies, as well as your own original field research.
Secondary sources include scholarly books and articles, reviews, biographies, and other works that interpret or discuss primary sources. Whether a source is considered primary or secondary sometimes depends on your topic and purpose. Scholarly and popular sources. Popular sources, on the other hand, are written for a general audience, and while they may discuss scholarly research, they are more likely to summarize that research than to report on it in detail.
Catchy, provocative titles usually signal that a source is popular, not scholarly. Scholarly sources are written by authors with academic credentials; popular sources are most often written by journalists or staff writers.
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